Trust Case Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Trust Case - Assignment Example tutorials, prompts, guides, to assist and inform the user to execute transaction and or explore task on the website (Studio Archetype/ Sapient, 1999, p.33). b) Presentation is the behavior in which the apparent glance and outlook of the site, both inside and outside of it, communicates significant information to the user. It has 3 elements. Clarity of Purpose implies that the efficiently laid out visuals successfully transmit the idea and the intention of the site. It is to familiarize the customers, that they can buy products when they get to this web site. Craftsmanship is the extent of the skill and proficiency of the development of the website, which the viewer perceives and judges by the first look of it. c) Technology: The number of ways in which the site technically functions. It has 2 elements which are: 1) Functionality: On the whole, how well the website seems to work for the user (Studio Archetype/ Sapient, 1999, p.33). d. Fulfillment is the entire method that the user goes through from the time a particular product’s purchase is initiated until he finally receives the product. Its elements include: 1) Protection of Personal Information: The privacy of the personal information is a must as it should be guaranteed to be used for that particular purpose to be used for no purpose other than what it was provided for. 3) Recourse: The operation process allows for remedy if one faces a problem at any time during the course of action. 4) Return Policy: There should be clarity in explaining the return policy 5) Simplicity of Process: How simple and easy is the purchase process (Studio Archetype/ Sapient, 1999, p.33). Qs2) â€Å"Seals of approval† are described as affirmed, acknowledged and authentic policies of security and encryption (seals of approval). The companies that provide these seals of approval are referred to in this report as â€Å"security brands. The top three â€Å"security brand† seals of approval in terms of percentage of

The Beat Generation and on the Road Essay Example for Free

The Beat Generation and on the Road Essay Violence and Crime is rising at a steady rate, but when did America inherit its lack of safety for the average person? The answer is from the â€Å"beat† generation. Depressed and hurt from World War Two and The Great Depression the â€Å"beat† generation sparked a downfall into theft, drug and alcohol abuse, and irresponsible sex. During the late nineteen forties and early nineteen fifties it was not uncommon to see people hitchhiking on the side of the road and getting picked up. This was a time when people considered the United States of America to be safe and the average person could walk the streets without worrying about being robbed, raped or murdered. Today it is uncommon to find someone who knowingly allows their adolescent children to hitchhike across the country or sometime even walk to school on their own. The modern-day citizens of the United States of America lock their cars, their homes and even put their children on leashes. These safety precautions would seem ridiculous and silly to those born before the nineteen sixties. This over-zealous amount of safety and security can all be blamed on those who have abused the good and innocent nature that Americans have previously displayed. The beat generation stole and lied at such an increasing rate that present-day Americans must be cautious of each other and live in fear of the most despicable crimes. In the novel, On the Road by Jack Kerouac, the protagonists steal, lie and get high to fill the empty spaces in their schedule and to sooth the pains in their souls. It is through these actions that security develops and these malevolent ideas are exchanged to the youth that is living under this broke and battered generation. The beat generation, hurt by world war two, lost the trust for the average American citizen by stealing, abusing drugs and alcohol and creating broken families. The greed for others belonging and the lack of availability of wealth in the world has tempted all to steal and lie to gain for themselves. In the novel, On the Road, the protagonists are seen stealing gas, cigarettes and even cars. Dean, the narrator’s long-time friend has literally grown up on the wrong side of the tracks. His father being a bum and a drunk helped him learn how to steal and survive the cruel world that the homeless live in. â€Å"We stopped at a gas station, and there Dean and Marylou played piggyback around the tanks and Dunkel went inside and stole three packs of cigarettes without trying. We were fresh out† (Kerouac 139). Dunkel, another homeless hitchhiker is picked up by Dean, Sal and Marylou. He effortlessly steals cigarettes for them, displaying another act of theft by a homeless person. This act of theft shows the reader the lack of morality of the vagabonds in America. When any of the protagonists are confronted by the police it is at a moment in the novel when they are not breaking the law. â€Å"We had to follow the patrolman back to the station and there spent an hour waiting in the grass while they telephoned Chicago to get the owner of the Cadillac to verify our position as hired drivers. Mr. Baron said, according to the cop, ‘Yes, that is my car, but I can’t vouch for anything else those boys might have done. ’†¦Everything was straightened out and we roared on† (Kerouac 236) It is very lucky for Dean and Sal to never get into actual trouble with the cops when they are stopped by them, because they steal so much that with the modern day security system and police they would be instantly caught and hauled off to prison. It is with this lack of morality and their never-ending desires and addictions that the protagonists continue their travels, stealing and doping back and forth across America. Along with the sins of theft comes the crime of drug and alcohol abuse. Throughout the novel the protagonists drink heavily and experiment with marijuana, and Benzedrine. When the group of irresponsible citizens travels to Louisiana to visit Bull Lee they slowly damage their livers with Benzedrine. Bull Lee represents the â€Å"teacher† of the group, the one from whom they have learned their ways of life. It is to no surprise of the reader that Bull Lee is constantly strung out on Benzedrine. â€Å"That night Marylou took everything in the books; she took tea, goofballs, benny, and liquor and even asked Old Bull for a shot of M, which of course he didn’t give her; he gave her a martini. She was so saturated with elements of all kinds that she came to a standstill and stood goofy on the porch with me† (Kerouac 147-148). It is apparent that all of the protagonists abuse drugs and alcohol. This shows their need to get away from the world and leave their lives behind. Like the road, and hitchhiking, drugs help them run from their problems so that they can find happiness. This novel present’s drug and alcohol abuse as a very apparent trend in society. Because of World War Two the people of America have seen many gruesome and horrible sights, and therefore they find the need to distance themselves from society as a whole, so that they can numb the pain from their losses. It was believed for a long time that Kerouac wrote the novel On the Road while taking Benzedrine for the euphoric and creative feeling that it gave him. â€Å"For decades, in countless publications, Kerouac’s nineteen fifty-one typing session has been described as ‘Benzedrine-fueled’ and ‘Benzedrine –drenched’ and so on. This is not the likely case. In a private letter, Kerouac corrected Ginsberg when, years later, he wrote an article for Village Voice saying that Benzedrine boosted Kerouac’s typing feat. Kerouac told Ginsberg in definite terms that ‘Road was not written on benny, on coffee’ (Jack Kerouac Letter to Allen Ginsberg 184)† (Theado 15). It is not unreasonable for those to have questioned Kerouac’s sobriety during the times that he wrote On the Road. It is from this generation that we have learned that one can get high on simple prescription medicine. Along with the drugs the acts of theft can even be considered one of the ways that the protagonists create artificial euphoria for themselves. â€Å"†¦while they might steal to support their drug habits, for example, Dean ‘Stole cars for joyrides’ (Kerouac 10). The phrase â€Å"joy ride† must be understood quite literally as an experience of joy, and joy-spontaneous and unmanageable- seemed to be in scarce supply in the sad world Sal describes†(Holton 23). This sadness in the world that Sal describes, can, in their eyes, only be cured through frivolity, and mischief. Causing mayhem seems to be one of the few ways the characters in the novel can create happiness for themselves. Breaking the law makes them happy and due to this life of recklessness and law breaking, promiscuity and broken families are developed. Throughout the novel Dean and Sal sleep with many women, to satisfy their desire for feelings of euphoria. Dean is found at the end of the novel in his third marriage and having four children. Although Dean loves his children it is not enough for him to stay married to the mother of his children. Dean could not find happiness in his past marriage because he constantly feels the need to be free and unattached from the real world. This could easily be because of him being brought up in a broken family. This shows that because of peoples past lack of creating stable, conventional families, has developed an age where it is more uncommon to find a family where the husband and wife have only been married to each other. It is made clear that all of those around Dean find him irresponsible and even idiotic. Galatea brings this up to Dean by saying:†You have absolutely no regard for anybody but yourself and your damned kicks. All you think about is what’s hanging between your legs and how much money you can get out of people and then you just throw them aside†(Kerouac 194). It is most obvious that Dean is careless and reckless. This is represented by his indecency to not stay with his children and not support them until he is required, by law, to do so. His lack of stability in female acquaintances upsets his friends to the point of them not seeing him in any respected way. â€Å"Dean’s liaison with a third wife is in effect a double betrayal, a double failure. It is a betrayal of his comradely marriage to Sal, and a betrayal of the freedom of action and movement that goes with ’IT’† (Hunt 51). Dean’s promiscuity is commonly seen today, and is regarded as dangerous because of the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections. This spread of STI’s could even possibly be from the beat generation’s incredible sexual deviance. As time progresses life can only get harder for everyone because of the previous generation’s irresponsibility and carelessness. One would argue that it is irresponsible to blame anyone for society’s faults and dangers. As the human race progresses, so does its troubles. It is impossible to blame one generation for all of the troubles in America, but it is clear that the crime rate jumped after World War Two with the xplanation that breaking the law was the only way for people to find euphoria. Drug abuse and theft were, for the most part, under-the-rug subjects and not expected of the average person. Society has quickly learned that anyone can be a criminal and that it is better to be precautious of the worst crimes than to be left stunned and helpless from being too naive and trusting all. Today, The United States of America is plagued with criminals and offenders of the law so that the people have covered the country with security cameras, technological safety precautions and locked doors. The people of The United States of America have learned the hard way, to not trust their neighbors from the actions of the beat generation. It also was very unheard of to have a non-conventional family before the nineteen fifties. The divorce rate is at an all-time high, and it is because of the poor actions that people make with those around them. This was all sparked by the beat generation’s lustful relationships and impromptu marriages. The rise in promiscuity and the lack of desire to be responsible with sex post-World War Two gave the idea that it is ok to not be conventional to the future generations of America. Human beings learn from those around them, and it is not uncommon to find trends in vices through different generations in families. One’s poor decision, witnessed by youth, will likely be reflected in the future by the youth. It is with the knowledge that one’s present actions will affect the future of those around him or her that one should gain responsibility for the future. It is without a doubt that society in the United States of America has drastically changed since World War Two and even more so with the creation of the internet in the nineteen eighties. The beat generation has given society the burden of lack of trust. Through the actions of many, American society has gained the knowledge that any one person can be a criminal. Due to the abuse of drugs, and alcohol from the beat generation, it is not uncommon to find addicts and junkies throughout the streets. Society is not naive anymore to the abuse of prescription drugs and inhalers. Medicines that have helped many have been removed from modern medical practice because of those who abused them for euphoric experiences. Families are now commonly seen with variations in relations between siblings and without a traditional set of two parents. The divorce rate in The United States of America has increased to a magnanimous height. Promiscuous images are frequently seen on the television, in magazines, and on the internet. Children have grown to be unaffected by gruesome and sexual images. It is undeniable that stealing is looked down upon by many, but in the present United States of America, the children are no strangers to shoplifting. Society in America is losing its morality as time goes on. It is due to the inappropriate actions of past generations that the citizens of The United States of America have increased their security and distrust in people as a whole. The beat generation, especially, has disturbed the minds of the American people with its anarchist movements. One should ask him or herself why society is being constantly watched through security cameras, and why it is so hard to find a traditionally structured family, and why it is now dangerous to hitchhike.

The Human Animal Essay -- Sociology

Several things make humans different from animals. These include burying of the dead by humans out of respect, humans evolving to stop relying primarily on instinct, humans being aware of themselves, the feeling of wrong and right sense, as well as evil and moral, complex languages and methods of communication by humans, human use of the brain in exceedingly complex ways compared to animals, and human ability to advance technology. The premise of this paper is to delve into the consequences of these differences. The paper will study moral behaviour, human uniqueness, and consciousness or lack of consciousness. The first consequence of the difference between humans and animals is human uniqueness (Levinas, 2004 p48). Any attempt to answer the question of what humanness is should involve a study of the results of seeing people as lacking or having humanness. Consequences of this question include the dehumanization of groups that are despised and the excuse making to explain ones failings as being only human. This question reveals that there exist two direct consequences of humanness: human nature and human uniqueness (Jeeves, 2011 p32). Human nature refers to the attributes seen as typically, essentially, and fundamentally human. Human uniqueness, on the other hand, refers to those attributes that distinguish an animal from a human being. Differences that lead to human uniqueness are a large brain and an erect posture (Levinas, 2004 p49). Human is the only species of vertebrates that possess an erect posture and a gait that is bipedal. While birds are also bipedal, their backbone stands horizontally rather than vertically with the exception of the penguin. Despite kangaroos being bipedal, they do not possess an erect posture, a... ...uences are freely observable, and are what make a human be referred to as so. References Cavalieri, Paola. The Animal Debate: A Reexamination† in In Defense of Animals: The Second . London: Blackwell Publishers,, 2006. Descartes, Rene. From the Letters of 1646 and 1649† in Linda Kalof and Amy Fitzgerald Eds. . Oxford: Berg, 2007. Jeeves, Malcolm A. Rethinking human nature : a multidisciplinary approach. Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co, 2011. Johnson, Clarence Sholà ©. Cornel West and Philosophy. London: Routledge,, 2003. Kant, Immanuel. Duties Towards Animals and Spirits† in Lectures on Ethics, trans Louis . New York: The Century Co, 1963. Levinas, Emmanuel. The Name of a Dog, or Natural Rights† in Peter Atterton and Matthew. London: Continuum, 2004. Nitecki, Matthew H. Evolutionary ethics. New York: State Univ. of New York Press, 2003.

Preventing Bacteria from Creating Resistance to Drugs Essay -- Explora

Preventing Bacteria from Creating Resistance to Drugs In 1943, the antibiotic era began when penicillin, a member of the [beta]-lacam family of drugs, was developed. Since then, tens of thousands of derivatives of penicillin have been developed, but only seventeen antibiotics of this family are currently marketed in the United States. Penicillin and its derivatives work by preventing certain bacteria from building strong cell walls that keep their shape and integrity. Without well-integrated cell walls, "bacterial trying to grow in the presence of penicillin puff up and die."1 Almost all bacterial diseases have evolved some level of resistance. The "increased use of antimicrobial drugs encourages the spread of resistance and increases the prevalence of drug-resistant strains."2 In fact, most virulent strains, like many sexually transmitted diseases, require at least double the dosage that was used a decade ago. Vancomycin, commonly referred to as the "last resort drug," is being used by hospitals in ever-increasing amounts. Bacterial resistance is the result of evolutionary responses. One cause of resistance is through mutation. In some instances, proteins used to build the cell are altered to bind penicillin poorly or not at all. A second type of resistance occurs when the bacteria preemptively breaks down penicillin into harmless by-products before they have the chance to bind with the cell wall. A greater cause for concern is the fact that "bacteria may reproduce with different bacterial species passing on resistance" to bacteria that did not previously possess the ability to resist any drugs.3 Humans are the predominant cause for drug resistance. The following are some examples of how human intervention has res... ...3. Palumbi. Pg. 81. 4. "Meanwhile, Back at the Farm" in Infectious Disease Alert. Nov. 1, 2001. vol. 21 i. 3 Pg. 17. 5. Palumbi. Pg. 89. 6. Palumbi. Reproduced from Table 4.1 on Pg. 75. 7. Skolnic, Andrew. "New Insight Into How Bacteria Develop Antibiotic Resistance" in The Journal of the American Medical Association. Jan. 2, 1991. vol. 265 n. 1. Pg. 14. 8. For further reading consult: Skurkovich, Simon. "Facing the Coming Plague" in World and I. June 1998. vol. 13 n. 6. Pg. 150. FURTHER READING & USEFUL LINKS 1. This presentation was intended to be associated with the following article: Eckert, Eric. "Diseased Soieties" in World and I. Oct. 1998. vol. 13 n. 10. Pg. 166. 2. Lappe, Marc. Breakout: The Evolving Threat of Drug-Resistant Disease. San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1995. 3. "How Bacteria Build Resistance to Antibiotics" presented by USA Today

Police Today Essay

Police officers are around to keep us safe and are viewed as individuals who not only follow the law but ensure that others do the same. Though this is the usual case, not always do our police officers practice these ideas. Problems amongst the police force have been around since prohibition and are only increasing in our dangerous and corrupted society. Corruption, on-the-job dangers, and the use of deadly force are all issues facing the police departments today. Since the days of prohibition, corruption amongst officers has been a problem. Back when bootleggers were on the rise, officers were paid off to keep quiet about the consumption of alcohol. In today’s society Police crimes consist of beating innocent citizens, protecting drug dealers, accepting bribes, and murder. Often time’s big cities experience this through the protection of street gangs and drug dealers. It seems the tradition of paying officers off for illegal activity hasn’t yet dissipated in our modern times; in fact, it appears it’s gotten worse. The old pattern of payoffs by the mob to top cops has changed to local police officers being bought off by drug dealers and street gangs. So now instead of just the select few cops being bought, the city police who might have actually been trusted before are being controlled by criminals as well. Everyday police officers experience crime first-hand, and their jobs can potentially be extremely dangerous. This year, twice as many police officers have been killed in the line of duty than last year. Easier accessibility to firearms, weapons, and the growing amount of illegal narcotics on our streets play a big role in the perils of the criminal justice field. Illegal narcotics link directly to violent crime. Gangs, prostitutes and other illegal activities being disregarded by corrupt officers also have something to do with the toils and hazards that confront an officer who is committed to their job. Another factor is our juveniles, who are becoming more violent and willing to do wrong th an ever before. With the rest of our world being such a treacherous place, and with drugs and trafficking appearing easier and more prosperous than education and a career, it’s no shock that so many kids are pursuing that lifestyle than ever before. Police officers have to handle these threatening activities on a day to day basis. When there’s so much corruption in the force, it’s difficult for anyone, even the most committed; to make an impact on the crimes, especially in big populated cities. Every day in the United States, police officers face challenges that may cause them to resort to deadly force. Under these circumstances, officers are forced to use what they know or have learned during training to come to a reasonable conclusion of what to do next. Their decision may at the time seem like it is a necessary one; however, an officer must understand the repercussions of his or her actions. Deadly force is a serious item of interest in the community. Citizens like to jump to insane conclusions, such as: hate crimes or racism. Conclusions like these can scar an officer’s reputation no matter what the verdict in a court of law. This can make malice family members and friends of the victim, and essentially mar the police force as a whole. The Department of Homeland Security helps to secure our borders, airports, seaports and waterways; research and develop the latest security technologies; respond to natural disasters or terrorists assaults; and analyzes intelligence reports. The Department of Homeland Security is above state and local police and tells them what to do and when to do it. They are the brains behind everything states do. The federal government and the DHS interact with each other to develop new technology, stop and prevent terrorism, and secure borders. The DHS could improve relationships with the local and state police by involving them more in the decision making, seeing as how they know the area they are policing better than the higher ups who are elsewhere involved. Police officers, as necessary to our safety and well-being as they may be, have many flaws. Corruption, on the job dangers, and deadly force are just a few of the contributing problems of our law enforcement. Never will these dangers completely reside but with a rise in police patrol and less corruption amongst the force, our police system could be stronger than ever.

Philosophy -210: Appearance vs. Reality Essay

Abstract What is knowledge? How do we come to have knowledge? What are the different sources of knowledge? How do we know anything at all? The philosophers and theories I will cover here are not concerned with knowledge itself but how we actually gain knowledge. How do we gain knowledge? Are we born with it? How do we know what we’ve learned is real. That is some of the questions these philosophers try to answer with their theories on knowledge. But do we agree or disagree with them? That is the question. Introduction. Before we begin discussing philosophers and their theories we must have a basic understanding of Epistemology which is the branch of philosophy concerned with the study of knowledge and belief. There are two schools of thought in epistemology, rationalism and empiricism. Empiricists like Bertrand Russell and David Hume believe that sense experience is the ultimate starting point for all knowledge and that knowledge is obtained from experience only. But yet rationalist like Rene Descartes claimed that the ultimate starting point for all knowledge is not the senses but reason and that knowledge can only be obtained through logic and reasoning. Philosophy is not a waste of time! It is a way to open new doors within one’s mind. (Bertrand Russell. ) Bertrand Russell’s essay on appearance versus reality attempts to do just that and open one’s mind to considering how things we see are not really as they seem. Is there any knowledge in the world which is so certain that no reasonable person could doubt it? Bertrand Russell circa (1872-1970) page. 73-77 & page. 82 – 86. Russell believed that all knowledge is ultimately derived from our sensory perceptions of the world around us. Russell coined the term â€Å"sense data† in his attempt to discern the relationship between appearance and reality. Sensory data is how an individual would perceive things based on touch, smell, taste, sight, or auditory stimulation. Can it not be manipulated? If an individual is under the influence of alcohol or drugs is there sensory information not impaired by the effects of both. I believe the point Russell is trying to make is that what is real to us may not be real at all. But do you agree with him. What would his counter parts think of his theories? Would Descartes agree? What about Hume. Rene Descartes circa (1596-1650) page. 87-91 Descartes believed that pure reason is the most reliable form of knowledge, he was a rationalist. He did not believe that the information gained through our senses was reliable and that our senses could be deceived. He doubted the reliability of sense perception and believed that knowledge could only be obtained through the methodical application of reason. With that said, what would Descartes’s think of Bertrand Russell’s theories regarding how knowledge is obtained? Would Russell’s theories conflict with his own? * I believe Descartes would challenge Russell’s theories by arguing that you could not rely solely on sensory information in order to gain knowledge. Descartes would say that we experience sensory stimulation while sleeping therefore we cannot only rely on sensory input as the only form of learning. He would claim that certain things in the universe are naturally constant and not open to interpretation or manipulation. III. David Hume circa (1711-1776) page 108-117 David Hume believed that all human knowledge is based on relations amongst ideas or what he called sense impressions, and that knowledge depends entirely on the evidence provided by our senses. Therefore anything not given an experience is a mere invention and must be discarded. He believed that human reason or inquiry could be divided into two categories, relations of ideas and matter of fact. As with Russell, Hume was an empiricist. He was more concerned about what and how we know and not with what is actually the case. Although Hume and Russell differed in their philosophical theories I believe they would agree with one another to an extent. Conclusion I can’t say I disagree with any one of the philosophers theories referenced in the text. In fact I personally believe that you have to apply all of their theories in order to gain knowledge. We do learn from example and from experience, but yet some things can’t be explained by logic and reasoning. Are babies not born hungry? If they are born with no knowledge how do they know they’re hungry. I believe in order to truly gain knowledge you must keep an open mind to all possibilities and forms of learning. Works Cited â€Å"Bertrand Russell. † (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . Cahn, Steven M. Exploring Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology. New York: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. â€Å"David Hume. † (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy). N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. † Hume, DavidA []. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Online Research in Philosophy. † Steven M. Cahn (ed. ), Exploring Philosophy: An Introductory Anthology. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. . â€Å"Rene Descartes. † Rene Descartes. N. p. , n. d. Web. 11 Nov. 2012. .

5.1. Critical Discussion of Findings in Relation to Literature and Theory Essay

5. 1. 1. Over Restrictive Regulatory Environment The respondents to the question of whether the environment of overly restrictive regulations was a challenge indicated almost without exception that indeed the restrictive aspect was stifling to at least some extent. This indicates that the regulatory environment currently being experienced in the Kuwaiti banks surveyed is in keeping with the general view of Islamic banks as reported in the literature reviewed. The banking environment created has proved to be unsound, and it accords with the ideas of Windy (2003) demonstrating that it has not been conducive to the effectiveness and efficiency of nine of the ten financial institutions surveyed. The current state of the Kuwaiti banking system, though improving, demonstrates that reporting and the monitoring of capital and risk have suffered due to the heavier restrictions placed on the Shariah compliant banks. See more: Old Age Problem essay Since the restrictions are greater for these banks in comparison with the conventional banks, the Islamic banks have indeed been placed at a disadvantage within the market and this has caused them to be less efficient and therefore less attractive to prospective customers. This lack of attractiveness makes it even more likely that these banks will remain niche focused and relatively small in comparison with the competition. 5. 1. 2. Uniform Regulatory and Legal Framework The respondents to the survey indicated unanimously that the lack of a uniform regulatory and legal framework poses a challenge to the current Islamic financial state. The response to this question might seem enigmatic in light of the previous one. However, though the Shariah imposes restrictions on the types of transactions that might be performed in Islamic financial institutions, it is the regulation of these restrictions that have proven to be without uniformity. This lack of uniformity has been shown to have crippling effects on the Kuwaiti institutions surveyed. The fact is that once regulations become uniform, this serves as a support mechanism to the institutions that follow the regulations (Dudley, 1998). The problem with this lack of regulation is that Islamic institutions have been trying to conduct business according to Shariah, yet this has to be done within the conventional Western financial framework which does not lend the proper type of support to Shariah banking policies. This has been especially problematic in Kuwait since so many of its banks are Islamic and yet the uniform regulations that govern are often at odds with the Shariah principles by which these banks are run. There apparently still continues to be problems despite the 2005/06 regulation attempts by the Central Bank of Kuwait, and it makes it clear that the mere addition of a separate Shariah section to the regulatory laws is insufficient. What is needed, apparently, is full and complete integration of the Shariah into the regulatory system at every pertinent level so that financial institutions will know how to act in a wide array of situations. 5. 1. 3. Underdeveloped Regulatory and Supervisory Regime. Akin to the aforementioned problem, and perhaps stemming directly from it, is the fact that all respondents agree that the supervisory system of regulations is underdeveloped in their financial institutions. When no systematic regulatory doctrines have been formulated, the difficulty arises because supervisory activity has no clear knowledge of what to supervise or guard against. Because of the underdeveloped nature of the supervisory elements, Islamic financial institutions in Kuwait continue to fumble as it regards the attainment of success and customer satisfaction. Customers in these institutions cannot be secure in receiving fair treatment from institutions that have no active and systematic supervision. The respondents did not consider the current state of regulation supervision to be completely inadequate, as their responses hint toward the acknowledgement that the IFSB’s efforts at establishing co-operation among standard-setting bodies have had some favourable impact on the Kuwaiti situation. However, capital adequacy and risk management represent only two of the many areas in which supervision is necessary to the health of Kuwait’s Islamic financial institutions. The responses also indicate that the IFSB’s intentions of extending supervisory cooperation to the areas market transparency and discipline as well as corporate governance are warranted. 5. 1. 4. Capital and Liquidity Requirements The requirements of capital and liquidity within the financial market sector have been theorized as having the potential to be damaging to the Islamic financial institutions around the world. However, the reasons given for this potentially problematic effect reflect a division among theoreticians and those employed within the financial sector. This existence of controversy is confirmed within this research of the Kuwaiti institutions, as three respondents considered liquidity and capital issues to be of medium to high importance, while the others considered the issue to be of very little importance. One side of the controversy identifies the issue of capital and liquidity as stemming from the Basel Committee’s over-estimation of the risks that might accrue to (or as a result of) the assets of Islamic institutions. These theorists indicate that they believe the risks are not as great as others might believe, and it is with this view that those respondents agree—who indicated that liquidity and capital were not an issue. The alternate theoretical view, with which the survey shows three respondents agreeing, is that Islamic financial institutions present more risk than other banks do. The fact that these banks are generally smaller and carry a narrower capital base seems to reflect a large part of what these respondents refer to when they consider liquidity and capital to be a risk in such institutions. The respondents do not, however, indicate any aversion to the establishment of a capital market that would trade in Sukuk and other instruments, and even deepen the market so that additional liquidity might be created. 5. 1. 5. Accounting Standards Harmonization According to the responses given, the issue regarding the standardization and harmonisation of accounting practices ranks highly on the list of things that need to be dealt with within the Islamic financial institutions of Kuwait. The importance of this harmonization has made itself clear within the institutions being studied, as the lack thereof has contributed to the existence of a shallow capital market that lacks fairness, efficiency, and transparency (IOSCO, 2004). The credibility granted Islamic financial institutions as a result of recent work by AAOIFI has improved operations enough to emphasise the importance of accounting harmonisation. As it now stands, the harmonisation initiative has improved the ability for Kuwaiti financial institutions to communicate with other non-Islamic banks as accounting standards have been expressed in harmony to a greater degree. This appears to have also accorded the banking system a reasonable amount of credibility in the estimation of other institutions and accorded to Islamic bank workers a higher level of respect among their peers. Yet more needs to be done, as has been indicated by the interviewees’ responses. Continued efforts to broaden the scope of harmonisation promise to improve the status of Kuwaiti banks within a financial situation in which the majority of institutions do work according to international accounting standards. 5. 1. 6. Standardization of Shariah The respondents were universally agreed that the proper standardization of Shariah was necessary not only to the proper understanding of the Islamic banking principles, but ultimately to the proper governing of all financial institutions in Kuwait. The survey highlights the confusion that currently exists within the market and the formation of a common platform, as suggested by Kahf, does have the potential to improve the existing problem. The standardization of the Shariah would have the added benefit of making it easier for non-Islamic bankers to understand the provisions and requirements of the Shariah as it regards banking. The facilitation of Halal transactions might then be put into effect between such banks and Islamic institutions in Kuwait. Such standards will help non-Islamic members of the banking community understand such ideas as the necessity that an underlying asset exist as the subject of any financing contract, so that institutions will be better prepared to provide more than just a debt paper when conducting Shariah transactions . Therefore, any transaction that resembles Riba, Maisir or any other action prohibited by Shariah may be avoided. Halal practices might be set up even within non-Islamic banking institutions, and this may facilitate increased competition and better practice all round. 5. 1. 7. Competition from Conventional Institutions Competition is itself considered by theoreticians to be a problem for Islamic financial institution as these businesses are usually small and possess a smaller capital base than their competitor institutions. The respondents themselves have also indicated that competition is an important consideration for the Islamic banks of Kuwait. However, the degree of importance to which these respondents have admitted have varied across the spectrum from low to high. The Islamic institutions of Kuwait appear also to have gained a vast amount of capital (via Sukuk and other methods) by appealing on religious grounds and the establishment of a capital market through those means (Iqbal, Ahmad and Khan, 1998). This would indicate why some respondents consider the threat of competition to be low, especially since the Islamic institutions have a religious claim to customer loyalty that competitor institutions may not possess. However, the importance of competition between Islamic institutions appears not to be overlooked by those respondents who considered the threat of competition to be high. Still, though competition may be high, the actual threat it poses may still be low as competition has the advantage of presenting a barrier to the entry of further banking institutions. Furthermore, the existence of non-Islamic financial institutions within the Islamic sector may have been considered favourable by those persons who responded that the threat is low. This may be because the presence of these institutions validates the viability of the Islamic banking sector (Al Omar & Abdel-Haq, 1996). 5. 1. 8. Availability of Data The issue of data availability rates highly within the Kuwaiti Islamic financial sector according to the respondents. These interviewees appear to understand and have had problems arising from the difficulty with which data and statistics are obtained regarding the Islamic capital markets (IOSCO, 2004). The necessity of scientific research and the indispensability of such statistical market data are also addressed in this response by the interviewees; such research has rarely been undertaken by Islamic banks. The unavailability of data is a major reason for this lack of valuable research, and it appears that respondents realize that this has prevented Kuwaiti banks from reaching their fullest potential. The current information possessed for banks on a broad Islamic scale is lacking, inadequate and subject to qualifications. This appears also to be the case for the banks in question represented by the respondents. 5. 2 Micro Level Changes 5. 2. 1. Liquidity Management All respondents considered liquidity management to be of high importance, and this is in direct contrast to the controversial nature of the issue regarding liquidity and capital requirements. This is in keeping with the literature and theory prevailing within the Islamic banking community, which identifies this to be of major importance, especially in light of Islamic banks’ bid for global expansion. In Kuwait too this proves to be of interest to the Islamic bankers, and the many challenges which face the market are likely to be the reason respondents invariably indicated it to be of high concern. Certainly ideas abound regarding how to manage the liquidity within the Islamic market. Methods as have already been identified such as the shuffling (unbundling and repackaging) of assets in order to make them more marketable and liquefiable (Iqbal, 1997). These methods, along with the identification of potentials for inter-bank market development (El Qorchi, 2005), are ones that would doubtless prove valuable within the Islamic financial market represented by these respondents. The depth of the market would be increased in such a situation, and this would prove to be beneficial in the Kuwaiti market that is expanding both within the country and on a global scale. However, these measures would depend on further developments that may present difficulties materializing, and the gravity of this is also reflected in the response to the questionnaire. Such developments would include the installation of a facility that provides a lender of last resort. It would also involve securitization for the purposes of managing the spectrum of risk as well as maturity issues (El Qorchi, 2005). 5. 2. 2. Maturity Mismatch The maturity mismatch issue appears to have contributed to a division among the respondents regarding their responses. While some considered this problem to be of high importance, these opinions were balanced by those who considered the issue to be of medium or low importance. Those respondents who identify maturity mismatch as a low-ranking problem gain assurance from the possibility of using Tawarroq (debt rollover) as a method of financing maturities. The fact that the Kuwaiti Islamic banks they represent have the ability to finance the debt of the ultimate creditor using customer money allows these respondents to feel secure (Al-Suwailem, 2006). However, those who consider maturity mismatch to be a high-ranking issue do so likely because, as has been indicated in the literature, questions do exist concerning the extent to which debt-rollover can be used to finance or match maturity. Other problems, too, lie in the fact that in order for these policies to perform freely, other things previously mentioned would have to be put into place—such as accounting harmonization (for the smooth running of the capital market). Since these systems are not fully up and running in the Kuwaiti market, then this might explain the apprehension that some of the respondents have concerning the maturity matching issue (IOSCO, 2004). 5. 2. 3. Personnel Competence, Qualifications and Training The issue surrounding personnel competence and training in the area of Islamic and Shariah institutional banking has been determined to be of high importance by all but one of the respondents—who still considered it to be quite relevant within the Kuwaiti situation. In order to continue its expansion within the local and global markets, the banking system within Kuwait needs to facilitate the training of its personnel in all areas—including the areas concerned with Shariah banking (Iqbal, Ahmad & Khan, 1998). This necessity has been reflected in the responses, as incompetence has no doubt been the issue within the banks they represent—judging from the fact that most consider it to be of high priority. The problem arises because (among other things) customers are generally more accustomed to the conventional style of banking. Where, as in Kuwait, the majority of banks are westernized and traditional, it becomes absolutely imperative that the personnel be thoroughly familiar not just with the practices pertaining to Islamic banking but also with the Shariah doctrines that govern them. Without this knowledge, it is likely that employees do not possess the expertise necessary to explain to customers the meanings and Islamic implications of certain banking or investment practices. The respondents to the questionnaire, being banking personnel themselves, have first-hand knowledge of the problems that may arise when personnel are untrained or unqualified. Their response also points toward the need for more scholars who specialize in both finance and Shariah, as well as the need for focussed development of courses in Shariah designed specifically for the economist (IOSCO, 2004). 5. 2. 4. Financial Products and Innovation Innovation and the development of financial products appear to rank highly in the estimation of Kuwaiti bankers and investors, as is indicated by the responses to the questionnaire regarding this issue. The idea behind this wide-spread adoption of the innovative process by these Kuwaiti respondents stems from the theory that the viability of these Islamic institutions as an alternative to conventional banking rests on the ability of the bankers to provide a wide variety of new methods of investment for potential investors. The respondents, being high-level investment personnel working in Kuwait, are at least aware of the plethora of ways that Islamic and Shariah banking methods differ from the conventional methods of banking. These differences offer a variety of ways in which innovation might be brought to bear upon the Kuwaiti financial market and be made to attract newer investors. Such ideas as Mudarabah and Musharakah are likely to draw prospective investors previously deterred by the prospect of bearing the entire losses of their ventures. Furthermore, such persons as the respondents represent are in touch with the needs that customers have, and this knowledge allows them to realise the necessity of developing financial products that cater to these needs (Al-Suweilem, 2006; Bacha, 1999). As a result, supply will work toward creating an equilibrium with the demand that exists. Concerns may arise from the fact that these persons are also aware of the need for an in-depth understanding of the array financial instruments in order to put into effect many of the innovations necessary within Kuwait’s Islamic financial institutions (1999). 5. 2. 5. Products and Services’ Marketing The imperative nature of the marketing of products and services is reflected to some extent within the responses to the questionnaire. Though most consider this to be of importance, one person did offer a dissenting voice. Those who did agree were also divided as to the extent to which product marketing is necessary. It is likely that the dissenting person places the innovative development of products in a more prominent place, arguing that until products are developed no marketing will be necessary. This is certainly true. However, the fact that so many of the respondents acknowledge the necessity of marketing makes it clear that they understand one of the major issues facing Islamic financial institutions: customers are largely unaware of the services that are offered and the ways that these services could be of benefit to them. Clearly this is as much the case in Kuwait as anywhere else since so many respondents in the affirmative concerning the issue. 5. 2. 6. Size of Institutions Institution size is an issue on which most respondents again agreed. These Kuwaiti investment professionals appear also to face challenges which are similar to those faced by all banks—that of garnering a sufficiently wide investment base in order to ensure security and to maximize their competitive strength within the market. Since the questionnaire specifically asked whether size posed a challenge, the answers indicate that even in Kuwait, smaller banks tend to suffer from a higher level of risk on the financial market. What is also probable is that these smaller banks are represented mainly by the Islamic and Shariah compliant banks within the country. The earlier replies concerning the need for marketing and innovation therefore apply to this question of size, as development of strategies along these lines would enable growth and deepening of the institution as well as the market. It is likely, therefore, that (regarding the question of the challenging nature of institution size) the concurring responses demonstrate the need for expansion of Kuwaiti Islamic financial institutions. 5. 2. 7. Institution Rating and Instruments Theory, literature, and this survey concur on the question of the importance of institution rating. Though the matter is brought up as a subject of relevance within the Islamic banking community, it has not been treated as a major issue. This is seen especially in the fact that it remains a question whether or not such ratings should be made obligatory for financial institutions. The respondents to this question gauged the importance of ratings to be of low or medium range, indicating that in the Kuwaiti Islamic banking system, though ratings are also relevant, it is not the question of utmost importance to anyone concerned. The importance of ratings has however been established by the respondents within the Kuwaiti market. Despite the fact that they consider it of low importance, they do indicate that it is considered a pertinent issue. One reason for this would be that the IIRA does exist as a body to assess (among other things) the Shariah compliance of Kuwaiti financial institutions. This may have a bearing on the consumer loyalty that might be considered important to the continued operation or wellbeing of many of these institutions, especially in light of the fact that many Kuwaitis choose Islamic banks (over the competition) precisely for reasons having to do with Shariah compliance. 5. 2. 8. Inadequate Sensitivity to Customer Satisfaction While almost all respondents identified inadequate sensitivity to customer satisfaction as a challenge, of some concern is the fact that only a few Kuwaiti banking personnel identified it as a highly important one. It is evident that Kuwaiti bankers understand the situation of competition that exists within that nation’s financial market, especially since in Kuwait only three of its 15 banks are Islamic. It becomes imperative that consumers are satisfied within such a market where (with 76 other investment companies) alternative banking institutions about. What the Kuwaitis may be counting on is the fact that consumers who use Islamic financial institutions already have their primary needs met in a bank that is Shariah compliant. Still, as represented earlier, Kuwaiti’s banking personnel recognize the need for creating innovative banking products that cater to the desires of the consumer. They also recognise that in order to cater to these needs, sensitivity to customer satisfaction is indispensable. 5. 2. 9. Inability to Communicate Uniqueness The challenge faced in identifying the unique attributes of Islamic financial institutions is admitted by the majority of banking professionals surveyed. However, the importance of this issue seems to be only minimally appreciated in Kuwait—according to the data collected. This idea goes back to the question of marketing, and in which it was also evident that Kuwait felt no major compulsion toward pushing the Islamic banking product to consumers. Concerns about the future of Kuwaiti Islamic banking might here be expressed as it has been shown through the theory and literature reviewed that the ability of these institutions to become strong, viable, and known alternatives to traditional banking depends on its differentiation within the market (Khan & Ahmed, 2001). 5. 3. Critical Engagement with Areas of Convergence 5. 3. 1. Convergence on Shariah Compliance Issues In some very critical areas, it was found that the responses made by these Kuwaiti financial professionals strongly support the theories found in the literature. The strength of this support points in many cases toward not only the importance of the question but also the extent to which changes are necessary within the Kuwaiti finance environment. The unanimity with which the respondents answered the question of uniform regulation challenges leaves no doubt that the lack or inadequacy of regulation dealing specifically with Shariah compliance has a crippling effect on the Kuwaiti banking system. Since the Shariah’s restrictions and requirements may often be intricate, the lack of uniformity within the Kuwaiti market (as has been predicted by literature) has led to problems. Such problems have the potential of ranging from simply an inability to properly execute in the Shariah-compliant areas of banking, or the inability to detect and prevent the inappropriate actions of institutions that claim Shariah compliance. What the Kuwaiti banks have demonstrated is a convergence between theory and practice in that without a proper regulation system, the Shariah support mechanism for the institutions has also proven to be substandard (Dudley, 1998). Islamic institutions in Kuwait, while trying to conduct Shariah compliant business, have the added problem of working within the sometimes contradictory framework of conventional Western banking. Furthermore, the problem proves more crippling in the Kuwaiti finance environment as the Islamic banks are many, yet are lost in a world of regulations that prove more hospitable to the competition. The fact that problems still exist despite the 2005/06 attempts at regulation by the Kuwait’s central bank (CBK) only points to the magnitude of the problem as represented by Shariah regulation and the necessity of uniformity within these regulations/. It also demonstrates the inadequacy of simply tacking on a Shariah amendment to existing law. What this research has shown to be truly necessary is a thorough review of current regulations that culminates in the full integration of Shariah. This will facilitate the continued running of Islamic (as well as conventional) banking institutions within the financial environment. 5. 3. 2. Convergence on Competence and Training in Shariah The importance of personnel competence and training in Shariah banking is also an area that demonstrates convergence of practice in Kuwait with the theory. It highlights the immense need for scholarship and training in both Shariah and banking (IOSCO, 2004; Iqbal, Ahmad & Khan, 1998). The lack of thorough understanding of the key Shariah concepts (as introduced earlier on in this research) is shown to be a deterrent to optimal practice in the Kuwaiti financial environment. Since consumers are more used to conventional banking, this makes it all the more necessary for banking personnel to be fully equipped with knowledge and expertise in Shariah financial management so that all consumer queries might be dealt with thoroughly and professionally. 5. 4. Critical Engagement with Areas of Divergence 5. 4. 1. Divergence on Marketing and Innovation Issues Despite the concurrence of the responses with the theories presented in the literature, there were also some areas where responses disagreed with theory or amongst themselves. The areas represented are product/service marketing, inadequate sensitivity to customer satisfaction, and inability to communicate uniqueness. As regards the imperative nature of product and service marketing, the disagreement was occasioned in the area of the extent to which product and service marketing is necessary within the Kuwaiti Islamic banking environment. The connection that this question of product marketing has with innovation is undeniable, and it is likely that disagreement stems from the fact that persons place a higher priority on innovation. Products must be created before they can be marketed after all. However, it appears to be problematic that even some institutions within the Kuwaiti Islamic banking sector do not place importance upon marketing, as this strategy is precisely the method through which customers become aware of the services that any bank has to offer. Those who consider marketing to be of high importance understand that customer ignorance can have a damaging effect on the viability of a financial institution. Lack of knowledge prompts potential consumers to ignore the services available, and business that might otherwise be gained is lost. Marketing allows customers to become aware of these services, and it is consumer centred as it promotes the benefits that might accrue to the customer as a result of using that service. 5. 4. 2. Divergence on the Question of Sensitivity to Customer Satisfaction The other area of divergence deals with inadequate sensitivity to customer satisfaction. While the theory explored highlights this as an important area, it was surprising to note that some of the respondents considered the challenge to be of high importance. Evidently, the Kuwaiti banking personnel do comprehend the gravity of the competition that exists between Shariah and non-Shariah financial institutions. The fact that non-Shariah banks are set up so that losses to the institution are minimized at the expense of the customer leaves such banks in a relatively more secure position. The necessity of being sensitive to the satisfaction of clients becomes that more important, as the relationship with the customer is possibly the area that offers an Islamic bank the greatest amount of competitive advantage. In order that consumers who may not be completely loyal to Shariah be induced to work with the institution (or to continue as a customer), the satisfaction of these persons (on whom the institution rests) must be ascertained and guaranteed. Marketing plays a big role in this, but before marketing can take place banking professionals must become aware of the areas that would most satisfy these consumers. It must also be aware of areas in which satisfaction is not being granted (whether within Islamic banks or the alternative banking system) and changes made promptly to improve these conditions. 5. 4. 3. Divergence on the Issue of Communicating Uniqueness By far, the divergence of opinions between theory and practice as it regards the inability to communicate uniqueness is most surprising. The reason for this is that it is precisely the uniqueness of the Islamic bank that defines the necessity for all other areas of this research. Its compliance with Shariah principles is what sets it apart from the competition, and it is this that also contributes to the difficulties as well as the advantages of the Islamic bank. Though challenges of identifying the Islamic banks’ uniqueness is acknowledged by the majority of banking professionals surveyed, the minimal appreciation of its importance within Kuwait is of great concern for aforementioned reasons. The idea of uniqueness also reverts to the question of marketing. Though it does make sense that institutions that disregard marketing somewhat would also disregard the importance of product differentiation, this lack of interest on the part of so many managers gives cause for alarm. It gives cause for the expression of concerns about the future of Islamic financial institutions in Kuwait if no effort is made at demonstrating how their services differ from the traditional services of the competition (Khan & Ahmed, 2001). 5. 5. Reflection on personal learning As a student who is relatively new at empirical research, I found the experience of collecting and ordering data very intriguing. It was very interesting to find that the research carried out during the literature review demonstrated that though different researchers had essentially been studying the same phenomenon in different countries, the ideas extracted were able to come together to form a cohesive body of knowledge. This became even more evident when the empirical data collected within this research began finding support in the literature and theoretical concepts identified within the literature review. As it regards Islamic and Kuwaiti banking, I learned that the Shariah system of banking in many ways embodied ideas that exist for the improvement of the financial condition of the country which it serves. It caters to the needs of the institution, yet appears to be much more client centred than traditional banking. It also seems to favour the growth of the economy in its determination that financial transactions be done expressly in conjunction with the creation of real and tangible wealth. Finance is therefore not divorced from real work and real investment or enterprise. I also learned that Islamic banking does face many challenges, however.